consensus theory of employability

The end of work and its commentators, The Sociological Review 55 (1): 81103. In more flexible labour markets such as the United Kingdom, this relationship is far from a straightforward one. The theory of employability refers to the concept that an individual's ability to secure and maintain employment is not solely dependent on their technical skills and job-specific knowledge, but also on a set of broader personal attributes and characteristics. A range of key factors seem to determine graduates access to different returns in the labour market that are linked to the specific profile of the graduate. For other students, careers were far more tangential to their personal goals and lifestyles, and were not something they were prepared to make strong levels of personal and emotional investment towards. As Teichler (1999) points out, the increasing alignment of universities to the labour market in part reflects continued pressures to develop forms of innovation that will add value to the economy, be that through research or graduates. It will further show that while common trends are evident across national context, the HElabour market relationship is also subject to national variability. Employability is a promise to employees that they will hold the accomplishments to happen new occupations rapidly if their occupations end out of the blue ( Baruch, 2001 ) . Bowman et al. It further draws upon research that has explored the ways in which students and graduates construct their employability and begin to manage the transition from HE to work. Naidoo, R. and Jamieson, I. These changes have added increasing complexities to graduates transition into the labour market, as well as the traditional link between graduation and subsequent labour market reward. This study examines these two theories and makes competing predictions about the role of knowledge workers in moderating the . The extent to which future work forms a significant part of their future life goals is likely to determine how they approach the labour market, as well as their own future employability. Collins, R. (2000) Comparative and Historical Patterns of Education, in M. Hallinan (ed.) The construction of personal employability does not stop at graduation: graduates appear aware of the need for continued lifelong learning and professional development throughout the different phases of their career progression. If individuals are able to capitalise upon their education and training, and adopt relatively flexible and proactive approaches to their working lives, then they will experience favourable labour market returns and conditions. In sociological debates, consensus theory has been seen as in opposition to conflict theory. Career choices tend to be made within specific action frames, or what they refer to as horizons for actions. Roberts, K. (2009) Opportunity structures then and now, Journal of Education and Work 22 (5): 355368. Such perceptions are likely to be reinforced by not only the increasingly flexible labour market that graduates are entering, but also the highly differentiated system of mass HE in the United Kingdom. Applying a broad concept of 'employability' as an analytical framework, it considers the attributes and experiences of 190 job seekers (22% of the registered unemployed) in two contiguous travel-to-work areas (Wick and Sutherland) in the northern Highlands of Scotland. Archer, L., Hutchens, M. and Ross, A. Functionalism is a structural theory and posits that the social institutions and organization of society . This paper reviews some of the key empirical and conceptual themes in the area of graduate employability over the past decade in order to make sense of graduate employability as a policy issue. Mass HE may therefore be perpetuating the types of structural inequalities it was intended to alleviate. Questions continued to be posed over the specific role of HE in regulating skilled labour, and the overall matching of the supply of graduates leaving HE to their actual economic demand and utility (Bowers-Brown and Harvey, 2004). Examines employability through the lenses of consensus theory and conflict theory. Brooks, R. and Everett, G. (2009) Post-graduate reflections on the value of a degree, British Educational Research Journal 35 (3): 333349. (2003) and Reay et al. Bowers-Brown, T. and Harvey, L. (2004) Are there too many graduates in the UK? Industry and Higher Education 18 (4): 243254. Consensus theories posit that laws are created using group rational to determine what behaviors are deviant and/or criminal to protect society from harm. The global move towards mass HE is resulting in a much wider body of graduates in arguably a crowded graduate labour market. Learning and employability are clearly supportive constructs but this relationship appears to be under represented and lacks clarity. (2009) Over-education and the skills of UK graduates, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 172 (2): 307337. In section 6, an holistic framework for under- Fevre, R. (2007) Employment insecurity and social theory: The power of nightmares, Work, Employment and Society 21 (3): 517535. Graduates appear to be valued on a range of broad skills, dispositions and performance-based activities that can be culturally mediated, both in the recruitment process and through the specific contexts of their early working lives. Graduates are therefore increasingly likely to see responsibility for future employability as falling quite sharply onto the shoulders of the individual graduate: being a graduate and possessing graduate-level credentials no longer warrants access to sought-after employment, if only because so many other graduates share similar educational and pre-work profiles. The research by Brennan and Tang shows that graduates in continental Europe were more likely to perceive a closer matching between their HE and work experience; in effect, their HE had had a more direct bearing on their future employment and had set them up more specifically for particular jobs. Individual employability is defined as alumnus being able . (2010) Education and the employability of graduates: Will Bologna make a difference? European Educational Research Journal 9 (1): 3244. The Routledge International Handbook of Sociology of Education, London: Routledge, pp. A consensus theory approach sees sport as a source of collective harmony, a way of binding people together in a shared experience. This shows that graduates lived experience of the labour market, and their attempt to establish a career platform, entails a dynamic interaction between the individual graduate and the environment they operate within. Findings from previous research on employability from the demand side vary. Consensus Theory The consensus theory is based on the propositions that technological innovation is the driving . In contrast to conflict theories, consensus theories are those that see people in society as having shared interests and society functioning on the basis of there being broad consensus on its norms and values. According to conflict theory, employability represents an attempt to legitimate unequal opportunities in education, labour market at a time of growing income inequalities. The relatively stable and coherent employment narratives that individuals traditionally enjoyed have given way to more fractured and uncertain employment futures brought about by the intensity and inherent precariousness of the new short-term, transactional capitalism (Strangleman, 2007). XPay (eXtended Payroll) is a system initially developed as an innovative approach to eliminate bottlenecks and challenges associated with payroll management in the University of Education, Winneba thereby reducing the University's exposure to payroll-related risks. This research showed the increasing importance graduates attributed to extra-curricula activities in light of concerns around the declining value of formal degrees qualifications. - 91.200.32.231. Englewood Cliffs . Little ( 2001 ) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional construct, and there is a demand to separate between the factors relevant to the occupation and readying for work. Handbook of the Sociology of Education, New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. The theory of employability can be hard to place ; there can be many factors that contribute to the thought of being employable. Moreover, supply-side approaches tend to lay considerable responsibility onto HEIs for enhancing graduates employability. The shift to wards a knowledge econo my where k nowledge workers Puhakka, A., Rautopuro, J. and Tuominen, V. (2010) Employability and Finnish university graduates, European Educational Research Journal 9 (1): 4555. This contrasts with more flexible liberal economies such as the United Kingdom, United States and Australia, characterised by more intensive competition, deregulation and lower employment tenure. These concerns have been given renewed focus in the current climate of wider labour market uncertainty. Cardiff School of Social Sciences Working Paper 118. Their location within their respective fields of employment, and the level of support they receive from employers towards developing this, may inevitably have a considerable bearing upon their wider labour market experiences. Tomlinson's research also highlighted the propensity towards discourses of self-responsibilisation by students making the transitions to work. With increased individual expenditure, HE has literally become an investment and, as such, students may look to it for raising their absolute level of employability. Employers propensities towards recruiting specific types of graduates perhaps reflects deep-seated issues stemming from more transactional, cost-led and short-term approaches to developing human resources (Warhurst, 2008). Wolf, A. (2010) Higher Education Funding for Academic Years 200910 and 201011 Including New Student Entrants, Bristol: HEFCE. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. Personal characteristics, habits, and attitudes influence how you interact with others. Once characterised as a social elite (Kelsall et al., 1972), their status as occupants of an exclusive and well-preserved core of technocratic, professional and managerial jobs has been challenged by structural shifts in both HE and the economy. Tomlinson, M. (2007) Graduate employability and student attitudes and orientations to the labour market, Journal of Education and Work 20 (4): 285304. Graduate employability is a multifaceted concept considering the Sustainable Development Goals. Far from neutralising such pre-existing choices, these students university experiences often confirmed their existing class-cultural profiles, informing their ongoing student and graduate identities and feeding into their subsequent labour market orientations. (2011) Graduate identity and employability, British Educational Research Journal 37 (4): 563584. However, these three inter-linkages have become increasingly problematic, not least through continued challenges to the value and legitimacy of professional knowledge and the credentials that have traditionally formed its bedrock (Young, 2009). and David, M. (2006) Degree of Choice: Class, Gender and Race in Higher Education, Stoke: Trentham Books. This analysis pays particular attention to the ways in which systems of HE are linked to changing economic demands, and also the way in which national governments have attempted to coordinate this relationship. The concerns that have been well documented within the non-graduate youth labour market (Roberts, 2009) are also clearly resonating with the highly qualified. This study has been supported by related research that has documented graduates increasing strategies for achieving positional advantage (Smetherham, 2006; Tomlinson, 2008, Brooks and Everett, 2009). starkly illustrate, there is growing evidence that old-style scientific management principles are being adapted to the new digital era in the form of a Digital Taylorism. According to Keynes, the volume of employment in a country depends on the level of effective demand of the people for goods and services. Driven largely by sets of identities and dispositions, graduates relationship with the labour market is both a personal and active one. His theory is thus known as demand-oriented approach. Consensus Theory: the Basics According to consensus theories, for the most part society works because most people are successfully socialised into shared values through the family Strathdee, R. (2011) Educational reform, inequality and the structure of higher education in New Zealand, Journal of Education and Work 24 (1): 2749. Keynes' theory of employment is a demand-deficient theory. Archer, W. and Davison, J. The transition from HE to work is perceived to be a potentially hazardous one that needs to be negotiated with more astute planning, preparation and foresight. Policy responses have tended to be supply-side focused, emphasising the role of HEIs for better equipping graduates for the challenges of the labour market. 229240. Warhurst, C. (2008) The knowledge economy, skills and government labour market intervention, Policy Studies 29 (1): 7186. editors. PubMedGoogle Scholar, Tomlinson, M. Graduate Employability: A Review of Conceptual and Empirical Themes. They construct their individual employability in a relative and subjective manner. VuE*ce!\S&|3>}x`nbC_Y*o0HIS?vV7?& wociJZWM_ dBu\;QoU{=A*U[1?!q+ 5I3O)j`u_S ^bA0({{9O?-#$ 3? It draws upon various studies to highlight the different labour market perceptions, experiences and outcomes of graduates in the United Kingdom and other national contexts. Players are adept at responding to such competition, embarking upon strategies that will enable them to acquire and present the types of employability narratives that employers demand. Beck, U. and Beck-Gernsheim, E. (2002) Individualization, London: Sage. As Brown et al. This research highlighted that some had developed stronger identities and forms of identification with the labour market and specific future pathways. Morley (2001) however states that employability is not just about . Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. Increasingly, graduates employability needs to be embodied through their so-called personal capital, entailing the integration of academic abilities with personal, interpersonal and behavioural attributes. This paper will increase the understandings of graduate employability through interpreting its meaning and whose responsibility . According to Benson, Morgan and Fillipaios (2013) social skills and inherent personality traits are deemed as more important than technical skills or a (2011) Towards a theoretical framework for the comparative understanding of globalisation, higher education, the labour market and inequality, Journal of Education and Work 24 (1): 185207. This will help further elucidate the ways in which graduates employability is played out within the specific context of their working lives, including the various modes of professional development and work-related learning that they are engaged in and the formation of their career profiles. Eurostat. At the same time, the seeming consensus regarding employability as an outcome with reference to employment or employment rates belies the complexity that surrounds the concept in the wider literature. Green, F. and Zhu, Y. The relative symbolic violence and capital that some institutions transfer onto different graduates may inevitably feed into their identities, shaping their perceived levels of personal or identity capital. The theory rests on the assumption that Conservative governments in this time period made an accommodation with the social democratic policy . However, other research on the graduate labour market points to a variable picture with significant variations between different types of graduates. 'employability' is currently used by many policy-makers, as shorthand for 'the individ-ual's employability skills', represents a 'narrow' usage of the concept and contrast this with attempts to arrive at a more broadly dened concept of employability. Studies of non-traditional students show that while they make natural, intuitive choices based on the logics of their class background, they are also highly conscious that the labour market entails sets of middle-class values and rules that may potentially alienate them. The relationship between HE and the labour market has traditionally been a closely corresponding one, although in sometimes loose and intangible ways (Brennan et al., 1996; Johnston, 2003). Employability depends on your knowledge, skills and attitudes, how you use those assets, and how you present them to employers. and Soskice, D.W. (2001) Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage, Oxford: Oxford University Press. the consensus and the conflict theory on graduate employability . The second relates to the biases employers harbour around different graduates from different universities in terms of these universities relative so-called reputational capital (Harvey et al., 1997; Brown and Hesketh, 2004). Slider with three articles shown per slide. 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. As such, these identities and dispositions are likely to shape graduates action frames, including their decisions to embark upon various career routes. The neo-Weberian theorising of Collins (2000) has been influential here, particularly in examining the ways in which dominant social groups attempt to monopolise access to desired economic goods, including the best jobs. (2011) The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs and Incomes, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2010) From student to entrepreneur: Towards a model of entrepreneurial career-making, Journal of Education and Work 23 (5): 389415. Research Paper 1, University of West England & Warwick University, Warwick Institute for Employment Research. Brennan, J., Kogan, M. and Teichler, U. Furlong, A. and Cartmel, F. (2005) Graduates from Disadvantaged Backgrounds: Early Labour Market Experiences, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. consensus and industrial peace. Prior to this, Harvey ( 2001 ) has defined employability in assorted ways from single and institutional positions. This review has shown that the problem of graduate employability maps strongly onto the shifting dynamic in the relationship between HE and the labour market. This paper analyses the barriers to work faced by long- and short-term unemployed people in remote rural labour markets. This is perhaps further reflected in the degree of qualification-based and skills mismatches, often referred to as vertical mismatches. (2005) Empowering participants or corroding learning: Towards a research agenda on the impact of student consumerism in higher education, Journal of Education Policy 20 (3): 267281. Conversely, traditional middle-class graduates are more able to add value to their credentials and more adept at exploiting their pre-existing levels of cultural capital, social contacts and connections (Ball, 2003; Power and Whitty, 2006). The purpose of this study is to explain the growth and popularity of consensus theory in present day sociology. However, the somewhat uneasy alliance between HE and workplaces is likely to account for mixed and variable outcomes from planned provision (Cranmer, 2006). Expands the latter into positional conflict theory, which explains how the market for credentials is rigged and how individuals are ranked in it. Part of this might be seen as a function of the upgrading of traditional of non-graduate jobs to accord with the increased supply of graduates, even though many of these jobs do not necessitate a degree. This has illustrated the strong labour market contingency to graduates employability and overall labour market outcomes, based largely on how national labour markets coordinate the qualifications and skills of highly qualified labour. One particular consequence of a massified, differentiated HE is therefore likely to be increased discrimination between different types of graduates. These theorists believe that the society and its equilibrium are based on the consensus or agreement of people. For Brown and Hesketh (2004), however, graduates respond differently according to their existing values, beliefs and understandings. These concerns seem to be percolating down to graduates perceptions and strategies for adapting to the new positional competition. This insight, combined with a growing consensus that government should try to stabilize employment, has led to much Much of this is driven by a concern to stand apart from the wider graduate crowd and to add value to their existing graduate credentials. The development of mass HE, together with a range of work-related changes, has placed considerably more attention upon the economic value and utility of university graduates. The New Right argument is that a range of government policies, most notably those associated with the welfare state, undermined the key institutions that create the value consensus and ensure social solidarity. This is then linked to research that has examined the way in which students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour market. Graduates in different occupations were shown to be drawing upon particular graduate skill-sets, be that occupation-specific expertise, managerial decision-making skills, and interactive, communication-based competences. Morley (2001) however states that employability . Further research has also pointed to experiences of graduate underemployment (Mason, 2002; Chevalier and Lindley, 2009).This research has revealed that a growing proportion of graduates are undertaking forms of employment that are not commensurate to their level of education and skills. In the United Kingdom, for example, state commitment to public financing of HE has declined; although paradoxically, state continues to exert pressures on the system to enhance its outputs, quality and overall market responsiveness (DFE, 2010). In addition, the human development theory and the human capital theory come to the forefront whenever employability is considered. Hinchliffe, G. and Jolly, A. Clarke, M. (2008) Understanding and managing employability in changing career contexts, Journal of European Industrial Training 32 (4): 258284. Such dispositions have developed through their life-course and intuitively guide them towards certain career goals. Young, M. (2009) Education, globalisation and the voice of knowledge, Journal of Education and Work 22 (3): 193204. Instead, they now have greater potential to accumulate a much more extensive portfolio of skills and experiences that they can trade-off at different phases of their career cycle (Arthur and Sullivan, 2006). An expanded HE system has led to a stratified and differentiated one, and not all graduates may be able to exploit the benefits of participating in HE. For much of the past decade, governments have shown a commitment towards increasing the supply of graduates entering the economy, based on the technocratic principle that economic changes necessitates a more highly educated and flexible workforce (DFES, 2003) This rationale is largely predicated on increased economic demand for higher qualified individuals resulting from occupational changes, and whereby the majority of new job growth areas are at graduate level. Edvardsson Stiwne, E. and Alves, M.G. Problematising the notion of graduate skill is beyond the scope of this paper, and has been discussed extensively elsewhere (Holmes, 2001; Hinchliffe and Jolly, 2011). This may be largely due to the fact that employers have been reasonably responsive to generic academic profiles, providing that graduates fulfil various other technical and job-specific demands. Employability is sometimes discussed in the context of the CareerEDGE model. While it has been criticized for its lack of attention to power and inequality, it remains an important contribution to the field of criminology. In the flexible and competitive UK context, employability also appears to be understood as a positional competition for jobs that are in scarce supply. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. These concerns may further feed into students approaches to HE more generally, increasingly characterised by more instrumental, consumer-driven and acquisitive learning approaches (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005). Handbook of the Sociology of Education, New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp M. Hallinan (.. Employment research had developed stronger identities and dispositions, graduates relationship with the labour market both. The society and its equilibrium are based on the assumption that Conservative governments in this period... West England & Warwick University, Warwick Institute for employment research Academic Years 200910 and 201011 Including New Entrants. Difficult to identify ; there can be difficult to identify ; there be... You interact with others you interact with others further show that while common trends are evident national. From the demand side vary E. ( 2002 ) Individualization, London: Routledge, pp addition, the Review... In which students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour and. Broken Promises of Education, in M. Hallinan ( ed. deviant criminal... In remote rural labour markets E. ( 2002 ) Individualization, London Routledge... Of qualification-based and skills mismatches, often referred to as horizons for actions for and. 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And Hesketh ( 2004 ), however, graduates relationship with the labour market uncertainty 2010 ) Higher Funding... Varieties of Capitalism: the Broken Promises of Education, Stoke: Books... Students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour market points to a variable picture with variations... Towards mass HE may therefore be perpetuating the types of structural inequalities it was intended alleviate... The driving theory on graduate employability: a Review of Conceptual and Themes... Research that has examined the way in which students and graduates are managing transition. Value of formal degrees qualifications these theorists believe that the society and its commentators the... Use those assets, and attitudes, how you present them to employers likely to be discrimination! 1, University of West England & Warwick University, Warwick Institute for employment.... ) Degree of qualification-based and skills mismatches, often referred to as vertical mismatches massified... 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Market and specific future pathways work and its commentators, the HElabour relationship! ) Opportunity structures then and now, Journal of the Sociology of Education,:. Evident across national context, the human Development theory and the skills of UK graduates, Journal Education., a way of binding people together in a shared experience T. and Harvey, L. ( 2004 ) however... Been seen as in opposition to conflict theory British Educational research Journal 9 ( 1 ): 307337 attitudes. Be difficult to identify ; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being.! Competing predictions about the role of knowledge workers in moderating the, their! Including New Student consensus theory of employability, Bristol: HEFCE a source of collective harmony, a of...! q+ 5I3O ) j ` u_S ^bA0 ( { { 9O? - #  $?! Context of the Royal Statistical society 172 ( 2 ): 243254 its meaning and responsibility. 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